Prostate information and support

How prostate cancer is diagnosed references

  • Advising well men about the PSA test for prostate cancer: information for GPs [Internet]. GOV.UK. [cited 2022 Jan 5]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prostate-specific-antigen-testing-explanation-and-implementation/advising-well-men-about-the-psa-test-for-prostate-cancer-information-for-gps
  • Ahmed HU, El-Shater Bosaily A, Brown LC, Gabe R, Kaplan R, Parmar MK, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of multi-parametric MRI and TRUS biopsy in prostate cancer (PROMIS): a paired validating confirmatory study. The Lancet. 2017 Jan;
  • Allott EH, Masko EM, Freedland SJ. Obesity and Prostate Cancer: Weighing the Evidence. Eur Urol. 2013 May;63(5):800–9.
  • American College of Radiology. PI-RADS v 2.1 [Internet]. [cited 2022 Feb 4]. Available from: https://www.acr.org/Clinical-Resources/Reporting-and-Data-Systems/PI-RADS
  • Berney DM. The case for modifying the Gleason grading system. BJU Int. 2007;100(4):725–6.
  • Borghesi M, Ahmed H, Nam R, Schaeffer E, Schiavina R, Taneja S, et al. Complications After Systematic, Random, and Image-guided Prostate Biopsy. Eur Urol. 2017 Mar 1;71(3):353–65.
  • Borghesi M, Ahmed H, Nam R, Schaeffer E, Schiavina R, Taneja S, et al. Complications After Systematic, Random, and Image-guided Prostate Biopsy. Eur Urol. 2017 Mar;71(3):353–65.
  • Bostwick DG, Cheng L. Precursors of prostate cancer: Precursors of prostate cancer. Histopathology. 2012 Jan;60(1):4–27.
  • Bourke L, Smith D, Steed L, Hooper R, Carter A, Catto J, et al. Exercise for Men with Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Eur Urol. 2016 Apr;69(4):693–703.
  • Buskirk SJ, Pinkstaff DM, Petrou SP, Wehle MJ, Broderick GA, Young PR, et al. Acute urinary retention after transperineal template-guided prostate biopsy. Int J Radiat Oncol. 2004 Aug;59(5):1360–6.
  • Cao Y, Ma J. Body Mass Index, Prostate Cancer-Specific Mortality, and Biochemical Recurrence: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa). 2011 Jan 13;4(4):486–501.
  • Chen YC, Page JH, Chen R, Giovannucci E. Family history of prostate and breast cancer and the risk of prostate cancer in the PSA era. The Prostate. 2008 Oct 1;68(14):1582–91.
  • Clouston D, Bolton D. In situ and intraductal epithelial proliferations of prostate: definitions and treatment implications. Part 2: intraductal carcinoma and ductal adenocarcinoma of prostate. BJU Int. 2012 Dec;110 Suppl 4:22–4.
  • CT scan [Internet]. nhs.uk. 2017 [cited 2022 Jan 19]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ct-scan/
  • Davies NJ, Batehup L, Thomas R. The role of diet and physical activity in breast, colorectal, and prostate cancer survivorship: a review of the literature. Br J Cancer. 2011 Nov 8;105:S52–73.
  • De Marzo AM, Haffner MC, Lotan TL, Yegnasubramanian S, Nelson WG. Premalignancy in Prostate Cancer: Rethinking What We Know. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa). 2016 Aug 1;9(8):648–56.
  • Discacciati et al. - 2012 - Body mass index and incidence of localized and adv.pdf.
  • Dyson M. Patients recording consultations [Internet]. The British Medical Association is the trade union and professional body for doctors in the UK. [cited 2022 Jan 19]. Available from: https://www.bma.org.uk/advice-and-support/ethics/confidentiality-and-health-records/patients-recording-consultations
  • Epstein JI, Egevad L, Amin MB, Delahunt B, Srigley JR, Humphrey PA, et al. The 2014 International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) consensus conference on Gleason grading of prostatic carcinoma: definition of grading patterns and proposal for a new grading system. Am J Surg Pathol. 2016;40(2):244–52.
  • Fakhran S, Alhilali L, Kale H, Kanal E. Assessment of Rates of Acute Adverse Reactions to Gadobenate Dimeglumine: Review of More Than 130,000 Administrations in 7.5 Years. Am J Roentgenol. 2015 Mar 20;204(4):703–6.
  • Gardner JR, Livingston PM, Fraser SF. Effects of Exercise on Treatment-Related Adverse Effects for Patients With Prostate Cancer Receiving Androgen-Deprivation Therapy: A Systematic Review. J Clin Oncol. 2014 Feb 1;32(4):335–46.
  • Gerdtsson A, Poon JB, Thorek DL, Mucci LA, Evans MJ, Scardino P, et al. Anthropometric Measures at Multiple Times Throughout Life and Prostate Cancer Diagnosis, Metastasis, and Death. Eur Urol. 2015 Dec;68(6):1076–82.
  • Hechtman LM. Clinical Naturopathic Medicine [Internet]. Harcourt Publishers Group (Australia); 2014 [cited 2015 Jul 21]. 1610 p. Available from: http://www.bookdepository.com/Clinical-Naturopathic-Medicine-Leah-Hechtman/9780729541923
  • Hemminki K, Chen B. Familial association of prostate cancer with other cancers in the Swedish Family-Cancer Database. The Prostate. 2005 Oct 1;65(2):188–94.
  • Henson CC, Burden S, Davidson SE, Lal S. Nutritional interventions for reducing gastrointestinal toxicity in adults undergoing radical pelvic radiotherapy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2014 Nov 18];(11). Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD009896.pub2
  • Ho T, Gerber L, Aronson WJ, Terris MK, Presti JC, Kane CJ, et al. Obesity, Prostate-Specific Antigen Nadir, and Biochemical Recurrence After Radical Prostatectomy: Biology or Technique? Results from the SEARCH Database. Eur Urol. 2012 Nov;62(5):910–6.
  • Hu MB, Xu H, Bai PD, Jiang HW, Ding Q. Obesity has multifaceted impact on biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 36,927 patients. Med Oncol Northwood Lond Engl. 2014 Feb;31(2):829.
  • Husson O, Mols F, Poll-Franse LV van de. The relation between information provision and health-related quality of life, anxiety and depression among cancer survivors: a systematic review. Ann Oncol. 2010 Sep 24;mdq413.
  • Ilic D, Neuberger MM, Djulbegovic M, Dahm P. Screening for prostate cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(1).
  • Jones AL, Chinegwundoh F. Update on prostate cancer in black men within the UK. Ecancermedicalscience. 2014;8:455.
  • Jones D, Friend C, Dreher A, Allgar V, Macleod U. The diagnostic test accuracy of rectal examination for prostate cancer diagnosis in symptomatic patients: a systematic review. BMC Fam Pract. 2018 Jun 2;19:79.
  • Kasivisvanathan V, Rannikko AS, Borghi M, Panebianco V, Mynderse LA, Vaarala MH, et al. MRI-Targeted or Standard Biopsy for Prostate-Cancer Diagnosis. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2018 Mar 18 [cited 2018 May 4]; Available from: http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1801993
  • Keilani M, Hasenoehrl T, Baumann L, Ristl R, Schwarz M, Marhold M, et al. Effects of resistance exercise in prostate cancer patients: a meta-analysis. Support Care Cancer. 2017 Jun 10;
  • Keogh JWL, MacLeod RD. Body Composition, Physical Fitness, Functional Performance, Quality of Life, and Fatigue Benefits of Exercise for Prostate Cancer Patients: A Systematic Review. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2012 Jan;43(1):96–110.
  • Keto CJ, Aronson WJ, Terris MK, Presti JC, Kane CJ, Amling CL, et al. Obesity is associated with castration-resistant disease and metastasis in men treated with androgen deprivation therapy after radical prostatectomy: results from the SEARCH database. BJU Int. 2011;110(4):492–8.
  • Larkin D, Lopez V, Aromataris E. Managing cancer-related fatigue in men with prostate cancer: A systematic review of non-pharmacological interventions. Int J Nurs Pract. 2014 Oct;20(5):549–60.
  • Lee CH, Akin-Olugbade O, Kirschenbaum A. Overview of Prostate Anatomy, Histology, and Pathology. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2011 Sep;40(3):565–75.
  • Lin PH, Aronson W, Freedland SJ. Nutrition, dietary interventions and prostate cancer: the latest evidence. BMC Med. 2015 Jan 8;13:3.
  • Lloyd T, Hounsome L, Mehay A, Mee S, Verne J, Cooper A. Lifetime risk of being diagnosed with, or dying from, prostate cancer by major ethnic group in England 2008–2010. BMC Med [Internet]. 2015 Dec [cited 2015 Nov 5];13(1). Available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/13/171
  • Loeb S, Vellekoop A, Ahmed HU, Catto J, Emberton M, Nam R, et al. Systematic review of complications of prostate biopsy. Eur Urol. 2013 Dec;64(6):876–92.
  • Magnetic resonance imaging equipment in clinical use: safety guidelines [Internet]. GOV.UK. [cited 2022 Apr 22]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/safety-guidelines-for-magnetic-resonance-imaging-equipment-in-clinical-use
  • Menichetti J, Villa S, Magnani T, Avuzzi B, Bosetti D, Marenghi C, et al. Lifestyle interventions to improve the quality of life of men with prostate cancer: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2016 Dec;108:13–22.
  • Moch H, Humphrey PA, Ulbright TM, Reuter VE, editors. WHO Classification of tumours of the urinary system and male genital organs [Internet]. 4th ed. Vol. 8. World Health Organization; 2016. Available from: http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?codlan=1&codcol=70&codcch=4008
  • Mohamad H, McNeill G, Haseen F, N’Dow J, Craig LCA, Heys SD. The Effect of Dietary and Exercise Interventions on Body Weight in Prostate Cancer Patients: A Systematic Review. Nutr Cancer. 2015 Jan 2;67(1):43–60.
  • Montironi R, Mazzucchelli R, Lopez-Beltran A, Scarpelli M, Cheng L. Prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia: its morphological and molecular diagnosis and clinical significance. BJU Int. 2011;108(9):1394–401.
  • Mottet N. EAU Guidelines: Prostate Cancer [Internet]. Uroweb. 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 10]. Available from: https://uroweb.org/guideline/prostate-cancer/
  • MRI scan - Who can have one [Internet]. nhs.uk. 2017 [cited 2022 Jan 28]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mri-scan/who-can-have-it/
  • Murray KS, Bailey J, Zuk K, Lopez-Corona E, Thrasher JB. A prospective study of erectile function after transrectal ultrasonography-guided prostate biopsy. BJU Int. 2015 Aug;116(2):190–5.
  • National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Suspected cancer: recognition and referral [Internet]. 2021. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng12
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Lower urinary tract symptoms in men: management. 2015;26.
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Prostate cancer: diagnosis and management. 2021.
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Transperineal template biopsy and mapping of the prostate. 2010.
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Urinary tract infection (lower): antimicrobial prescribing. 2018.
  • National Prostate Cancer Audit. NPCA Annual Report 2021 [Internet]. National Prostate Cancer Audit. [cited 2022 Feb 4]. Available from: https://www.npca.org.uk/reports/npca-annual-report-2021/
  • Pettersson A, Johansson B, Persson C, Berglund A, Turesson I. Effects of a dietary intervention on acute gastrointestinal side effects and other aspects of health-related quality of life: A randomized controlled trial in prostate cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol. 2012 Jun;103(3):333–40.
  • Pinkstaff DM, Igel TC, Petrou SP, Broderick GA, Wehle MJ, Young PR. Systematic transperineal ultrasound-guided template biopsy of the prostate: Three-year experience. Urology. 2005 Apr;65(4):735–9.
  • Prostate cancer - Diagnosis [Internet]. nhs.uk. 2017 [cited 2022 Jan 20]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/prostate-cancer/diagnosis/
  • Prostate cancer - Should I have a PSA test? [Internet]. nhs.uk. 2018 [cited 2022 Jan 27]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/prostate-cancer/should-i-have-psa-test/
  • Prostate cancer - Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice [Internet]. [cited 2022 Feb 4]. Available from: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/254
  • Prostate Cancer UK. Consensus statements on PSA testing in asymptomatic men in the UK [Internet] [Internet]. 2016. Available from: www.prostatecanceruk.org/PSAconsensusHP
  • Prostate specific antigen testing: advice for well men aged 50 and over [Internet]. GOV.UK. [cited 2022 Jan 27]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prostate-specific-antigen-testing-description-in-brief
  • PSA testing | Diagnosis | Prostate cancer | CKS | NICE [Internet]. [cited 2022 Jan 27]. Available from: https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/prostate-cancer/diagnosis/psa-testing/
  • Ralph S. Developing UK Guidance on How Long Men Should Abstain from Receiving Anal Sex before, During and after Interventions for Prostate Cancer. Clin Oncol. 2021 Dec;33(12):807–10.
  • Richman EL, Kenfield SA, Stampfer MJ, Paciorek A, Carroll PR, Chan JM. Physical Activity after Diagnosis and Risk of Prostate Cancer Progression: Data from the Cancer of the Prostate Strategic Urologic Research Endeavor. Cancer Res. 2011 May 24;71(11):3889–95.
  • Rosario DJ, Lane JA, Metcalfe C, Donovan JL, Doble A, Goodwin L, et al. Short term outcomes of prostate biopsy in men tested for cancer by prostate specific antigen: prospective evaluation within ProtecT study. BMJ. 2012;344:d7894.
  • Schieda N, Blaichman JI, Costa AF, Glikstein R, Hurrell C, James M, et al. Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents in Kidney Disease: Comprehensive Review and Clinical Practice Guideline Issued by the Canadian Association of Radiologists. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2018 May;69(2):136–50.
  • Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. 2017;52.
  • Tanaka T, Froemming AT, Panda A, Edmonson HA, Pooley RA, Carter RE, et al. Safety and Image Quality of 1.5-T Endorectal Coil Multiparametric MRI of the Prostate or Prostatectomy Fossa for Patients With Pacemaker or Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator. Am J Roentgenol. 2019 Apr 1;212(4):815–22.
  • Teleni L, Chan RJ, Chan A, Isenring EA, Vela I, Inder WJ, et al. Exercise improves quality of life in androgen deprivation therapy-treated prostate cancer: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2016 Jan 2;23(2):101–12.
  • Tillisch K. Complementary and alternative medicine for functional gastrointestinal disorders. Gut. 2006 May 1;55(5):593–6.
  • Tuncel A, Toprak U, Balci M, Koseoglu E, Aksoy Y, Karademir A, et al. Impact of transrectal prostate needle biopsy on erectile function: Results of power Doppler ultrasonography of the prostate. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2014 Apr;30(4):194–9.
  • Turkbey B, Rosenkrantz AB, Haider MA, Padhani AR, Villeirs G, Macura KJ, et al. Prostate Imaging Reporting and Data System Version 2.1: 2019 Update of Prostate Imaging Reporting and Data System Version 2. Eur Urol. 2019 Sep 1;76(3):340–51.
  • Urinary tract infections (UTIs) [Internet]. nhs.uk. 2017 [cited 2022 Jan 26]. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/urinary-tract-infections-utis/
  • Wang LS, Murphy CT, Ruth K, Zaorsky NG, Smaldone MC, Sobczak ML, et al. Impact of obesity on outcomes after definitive dose-escalated intensity-modulated radiotherapy for localized prostate cancer. Cancer. 2015 Sep 1;121(17):3010–7.
  • Wedlake LJ, Shaw C, Whelan K, Andreyev HJN. Systematic review: the efficacy of nutritional interventions to counteract acute gastrointestinal toxicity during therapeutic pelvic radiotherapy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013 Jun;37(11):1046–56.
  • Wolin KY, Luly J, Sutcliffe S, Andriole GL, Kibel AS. Risk of Urinary Incontinence Following Prostatectomy: The Role of Physical Activity and Obesity. J Urol. 2010 Feb;183(2):629–33.
  • World Cancer Research Fund International. Continuous Update Project report: Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Prostate Cancer [Internet]. 2014. Available from: www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Prostate-Cancer-2014-Report.pdf
  • Xiang J, Yan H, Li J, Wang X, Chen H, Zheng X. Transperineal versus transrectal prostate biopsy in the diagnosis of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World J Surg Oncol. 2019 Feb 13;17:31.
  • Xue J, Qin Z, Cai H, Zhang C, Li X, Xu W, et al. Comparison between transrectal and transperineal prostate biopsy for detection of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Oncotarget. 2017;8(14):23322.
  • Zynger DL, Yang X. High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia of the prostate: the precursor lesion of prostate cancer. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2009;2(4):327.