Our Specialist Nurses 0800 074 8383
Donate

What foods should I eat or avoid if I have prostate cancer?

Plates of freshly cooked fish and healthy salads on a dinner table

On this page  

You may have heard of certain foods or dietary supplements that might help slow the growth of prostate cancer or lower the risk of it coming back after treatment. Or that some foods could be harmful for men with prostate cancer.

This page has information on some of these foods. But there isn't strong evidence for any of them, as different studies have had different results. This means we can’t say for sure whether any of these foods are likely to be helpful or harmful if you've been diagnosed with prostate cancer.

Many men want to know if any foods, or a particular diet, can help or even cure prostate cancer. But until there’s more evidence that any individual food has an effect, it’s best to have a balanced diet, including lots of fruit and vegetables and a wide range of other healthy foods.

Can any foods help with my prostate cancer?

Some studies suggest that certain foods could help slow down the growth of prostate cancer or lower the chance of it coming back after treatment. We describe some of these foods below. With all of these foods, the evidence isn't very strong and other studies haven’t shown any effect. This means we can’t say for sure whether any of these foods can help.

Soya beans and other pulses

Soya beans belong to a group of plants called pulses or legumes. Some of the chemicals in soya beans are also found in other pulses, such as kidney beans, chickpeas and lentils.

We don’t know whether pulses have an effect on prostate cancer, but they are a good source of protein and other nutrients that are important for general health. Three heaped tablespoons of cooked pulses can count as one of your five daily portions of vegetables.

Soya beans are available in some supermarkets in the frozen foods or dried snacks sections. If you decide to eat more soya beans, you could try products such as soya milk and yoghurts, tofu, soya bread, miso and tempeh. Try to avoid products with added salt and sugar.

Green tea

Some studies suggest that chemicals in green tea might protect against prostate cancer growth and advanced prostate cancer. But we can't say for certain about the effects of green tea, as other studies haven't seen the same benefits.

If you decide to drink green tea, you'll need to brew it for five minutes to make sure plenty of nutrients are released, making the flavour quite strong. You might want to choose a decaffeinated variety, especially if you have urinary problems, as caffeine can irritate the bladder.

Tomatoes and lycopene

Tomatoes contain a plant chemical called lycopene. Some studies have suggested that eating tomatoes could help to protect against prostate cancer growth and aggressive prostate cancer. But experts recently looked at all of the studies on lycopene and only found limited evidence of any benefit for men with prostate cancer. So we don't know if it's helpful.

Cooked and processed tomatoes, such as tomato sauces, soups, purees and pastes, are a better source of lycopene than fresh tomatoes. This is because the body finds it easier to absorb lycopene from tomatoes that have been cooked or processed, particularly with a little oil. Try to choose low-salt and low-sugar options as some products, such as ketchup, have added salt and sugar.

Lycopene is also found in watermelons, pink grapefruits, guava and papaya. As lycopene isn’t stored inside the body for very long, you need to eat foods containing lycopene regularly to keep some in your body. You may need to avoid grapefruit if you take certain medicines, including some drugs to lower cholesterol or blood pressure, drugs to treat erection problems, and warfarin to thin your blood. Ask your doctor or pharmacist if you’re unsure.

Cruciferous vegetables

These include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, bok choy, spinach and kale. Some studies suggest that cruciferous vegetables may help slow down the growth of prostate cancer and reduce the risk of advanced prostate cancer. But we need more research into the effects of cruciferous vegetables, as other studies haven’t found this.

Pomegranate

Some studies suggest that pomegranate juice may be good for men with prostate cancer. But we don't yet know if this is the case. If you want to try pomegranate juice, choose a variety with no added sugar. You may need to avoid pomegranate if you use certain prescription drugs. Ask your pharmacist for advice.

Are there any foods I should eat less of?

There is some evidence that eating a lot of certain foods may be harmful for men with prostate cancer. We describe some of these foods below. There's no need to cut any of these foods out of your diet completely. We need more research to fully understand their effect on prostate cancer, but you can still eat most of them in moderate amounts as part of a healthy, balanced diet.

Dairy foods and calcium

Dairy foods are high in calcium. Calcium is important for strong bones and your overall health, so you need some calcium in your diet – around 700mg a day, or 1200-1500mg a day if you're on hormone therapy.

Normal amounts of calcium and dairy foods won’t increase your risk of advanced prostate cancer. But some studies suggest that eating a lot of calcium might increase the risk of your prostate cancer growing and spreading. Others have found no link, but it may be an idea to avoid eating more than 2000mg of calcium – the amount in about 1.6 litres of milk – a day.

Meat

The effect of red and processed meat on men with prostate cancer isn’t clear. Some research suggests that eating too much may raise your risk of aggressive and advanced prostate cancer, while other research hasn’t found any effect. Some studies have also suggested that a diet that is low in meat but high in fruit and vegetables may help to slow the growth of prostate cancer.

Red meat includes beef, pork and lamb. Try to eat no more than 500g of cooked red meat (700 to 750g before cooking) a week. Processed meat is meat that has been preserved by smoking, curing or salting, or with preservatives. It includes ham, bacon and some sausages, such as salami. It's best to avoid processed meat.

Large amounts of meat that have been cooked at very high temperatures or are very well done, such as barbecued, grilled or fried meat, may also increase your risk of advanced cancer. This may be caused by chemicals that are made when meat burns, as they can damage cells. So try to avoid eating lots of meat cooked at very high temperatures.

Fat

You need to eat some fat for your body to work properly. But eating too much fat can make you put on weight, which raises your risk of being diagnosed with aggressive or advanced prostate cancer.

There are different types of fat. Replacing animal fats with vegetable oils may help men with prostate cancer to live for longer. There is also some research that suggests eating lots of saturated fat might be linked with an increased risk of prostate cancer coming back after surgery, and of developing advanced prostate cancer. But we need more research to know for sure whether this is the case, as other studies haven't found a link.

Should I use supplements or herbal remedies?

Some people like to use dietary supplements or herbal remedies, but there’s little evidence that they’re helpful for men with prostate cancer. Some may even be harmful.

Dietary supplements

There’s little evidence that supplements are helpful for men with prostate cancer. Some supplements may also interfere with your treatment for prostate cancer, so let your doctor, nurse or dietitian know if you’re taking any.

Most people should be able to get all vitamins, minerals and other nutrients they need by eating a balanced diet, without taking supplements. If you do choose to take supplements, speak to your doctor first and don’t take more than the recommended daily allowance (RDA).

Some men may need to take specific supplements. For example, if you’re on hormone therapy, your doctor might recommend calcium and vitamin D supplements. 

Herbal remedies

Some men like to take herbal medicines to help manage their prostate cancer or the side effects of treatment. For example, some men drink sage tea to help with hot flushes, which are a common side effect of hormone therapy. But there is very little evidence that herbal remedies can help to treat prostate cancer or reduce side effects.

It’s important to tell your doctor about any complementary therapies you are using, including herbal remedies. Some herbal remedies may interfere with your cancer treatment and some may affect your prostate specific antigen (PSA) level, making the PSA test unreliable.

Not all herbal remedies in the UK are licensed and the quality varies a lot. Be very careful when buying herbal remedies over the internet. Many are made outside the UK and may not be high-quality. Many companies make claims that are not based on proper research. There may be no real evidence that their products work and some may even be harmful. Remember that even if a product is ‘natural’, this doesn’t mean it is safe. For more information about using herbal remedies safely, visit the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) website.

Herbal supplements being tested

Recently researchers have been looking at supplements containing a number of things such as pomegranate, green tea, broccoli, turmeric, soya and lycopene, to see whether they have an effect on prostate cancer.

There have been mixed results, with some studies suggesting they may be helpful and others suggesting they don’t help. These studies have all been small and run for a short time, so we need larger studies lasting for several years to find out whether any supplements actually help.

What to read next

References

Last updated: May 2018

To be reviewed: May 2020

  • References  

    • Applegate CC, Rowles JL, Ranard KM, Jeon S, Erdman JW. Soy Consumption and the Risk of Prostate Cancer: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients [Internet]. 2018 Jan 4 [cited 2018 Mar 9];10(1). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5793268/
    • Adler RA. Management of osteoporosis in men on androgen deprivation therapy. Maturitas. 2011 Feb;68(2):143–7.
    • Allott EH, Masko EM, Freedland SJ. Obesity and Prostate Cancer: Weighing the Evidence. Eur Urol. 2013 May;63(5):800–9.
    • Aune D, Navarro Rosenblatt DA, Chan DS, Vieira AR, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, et al. Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015 Jan;101(1):87–117.
    • Bishop FL, Rea A, Lewith H, Chan YK, Saville J, Prescott P, et al. Complementary medicine use by men with prostate cancer: a systematic review of prevalence studies. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2010;14(1):1–13.
    • Bosland MC, Kato I, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Schmoll J, Enk Rueter E, Melamed J, et al. Effect of Soy Protein Isolate Supplementation on Biochemical Recurrence of Prostate Cancer After Radical Prostatectomy: A Randomized Trial. JAMA. 2013 Jul 10;310(2):170.
    • British Dietetic Association. Fats - Getting the balance right. 2012.
    • British Dietetic Association. Supplements [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/supplements.pdf
    • British National Formulary. Appendix 1. Drug interactions: Grapefruit juice [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2015 Jan 7]. Available from: https://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/bnf/current/bnf_int829-grapefruit-juice.htm
    • Bylsma LC, Alexander DD. A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat, meat cooking methods, heme iron, heterocyclic amines and prostate cancer. Nutr J [Internet]. 2015 Dec [cited 2017 Jun 6];14(1). Available from: http://www.nutritionj.com/content/14/1/125
    • Cao Y, Ma J. Body Mass Index, Prostate Cancer-Specific Mortality, and Biochemical Recurrence: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa). 2011 Jan 13;4(4):486–501.
    • Chan JM, Elkin EP, Silva SJ, Broering JM, Latini DM, Carroll PR. Total and specific complementary and alternative medicine use in a large cohort of men with prostate cancer. Urology. 2005 Dec;66(6):1223–8.
    • Chan JM, Van Blarigan EL, Kenfield SA. What should we tell prostate cancer patients about (secondary) prevention?: Curr Opin Urol. 2014 May;24(3):318–23.
    • Chen P, Zhang W, Wang X, Zhao K, Negi DS, Zhuo L, et al. Lycopene and Risk of Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015 Aug;94(33):e1260.
    • Cheung AS, Zajac JD, Grossmann M. Muscle and bone effects of androgen deprivation therapy: current and emerging therapies. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2014 Sep 17;21(5):R371–94.
    • Discacciati A, Orsini N, Wolk A. Body mass index and incidence of localized and advanced prostate cancer--a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Ann Oncol. 2012 Jan 6;23(7):1665–71.
    • Dolara P, Bigagli E, Collins A. Antioxidant vitamins and mineral supplementation, life span expansion and cancer incidence: a critical commentary. Eur J Nutr. 2012 Oct;51(7):769–81.
    • Downer MK, Batista JL, Mucci LA, Stampfer MJ, Epstein MM, Håkansson N, et al. Dairy intake in relation to prostate cancer survival. Int J Cancer. 2017 May 1;140(9):2060–9.
    • Fielding JM, Rowley KG, Cooper P, O’Dea K. Increases in plasma lycopene concentration after consumption of tomatoes cooked with olive oil. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2005;14(2):131–136.
    • Gathirua-Mwangi WG, Zhang J. Dietary factors and risk for advanced prostate cancer: Eur J Cancer Prev. 2014 Mar;23(2):96–109.
    • Grossmann M, Hamilton EJ, Gilfillan C, Bolton D, Joon DL, Zajac JD. Bone and metabolic health in patients with non-metastatic prostate cancer who are receiving androgen deprivation therapy. Med J Aust. 2011;194(6):301–306.
    • Guo Y, Zhi F, Chen P, Zhao K, Xiang H, Mao Q, et al. Green tea and the risk of prostate cancer. Medicine (Baltimore) [Internet]. 2017 Mar 31 [cited 2018 Mar 9];96(13). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5380255/
    • Hackshaw-McGeagh LE, Perry RE, Leach VA, Qandil S, Jeffreys M, Martin RM, et al. A systematic review of dietary, nutritional, and physical activity interventions for the prevention of prostate cancer progression and mortality. Cancer Causes Control. 2015 Nov;26(11):1521–50.
    • Hori S, Butler E, McLoughlin J. Prostate cancer and diet: food for thought? BJU Int. 2011;107(9):1348–1359.
    • Ilic D, Misso M. Lycopene for the prevention and treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer: A systematic review. Maturitas. 2012 Aug;72(4):269–76.
    • Jacob SA, Khan TM, Lee L-H. The Effect of Green Tea Consumption on Prostate Cancer Risk and Progression: A Systematic Review. Nutr Cancer. 2017 Apr 3;69(3):353–64.
    • Jiang L, Yang K, Tian J, Guan Q, Yao N, Cao N, et al. Efficacy of Antioxidant Vitamins and Selenium Supplement in Prostate Cancer Prevention: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutr Cancer. 2010 Jul 23;62(6):719–27.
    • John E, Stern M, Sinha R, Koo J. Meat Consumption, Cooking Practices, Meat Mutagens, and Risk of Prostate Cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2011 May;63(4):525–37.
    • Kenfield SA, Van Blarigan EL, DuPre N, Stampfer MJ, L. Giovannucci E, Chan JM. Selenium Supplementation and Prostate Cancer Mortality. JNCI J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014 Dec 12;107(1):dju360–dju360.
    • Kim MK, Park JHY. Cruciferous vegetable intake and the risk of human cancer: epidemiological evidence. Proc Nutr Soc. 2009 Feb;68(01):103.
    • Klein EA, Thompson Jr IM, Tangen CM, Crowley JJ, Lucia MS, Goodman PJ, et al. Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer. The selenium and vitamin E cancer prevention trial (SELECT). JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 2011;306(14):1549–1556.
    • Kristal AR, Darke AK, Morris JS, Tangen CM, Goodman PJ, Thompson IM, et al. Baseline Selenium Status and Effects of Selenium and Vitamin E Supplementation on Prostate Cancer Risk. JNCI J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014 Mar 26;106(3):djt456–djt456.
    • Lazarevic B, Boezelijn G, Diep LM, Kvernrod K, Ogren O, Ramberg H, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Short-Term Genistein Intervention in Patients with Localized Prostate Cancer Prior to Radical Prostatectomy: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Phase 2 Clinical Trial. Nutr Cancer. 2011 Aug;63(6):889–98.
    • Lin P-H, Aronson W, Freedland SJ. Nutrition, dietary interventions and prostate cancer: the latest evidence. BMC Med [Internet]. 2015 Dec [cited 2017 Oct 30];13(1). Available from: http://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-014-0234-y
    • Liu B, Mao Q, Cao M, Xie L. Cruciferous vegetables intake and risk of prostate cancer: A meta-analysis: Cruciferous vegetables and prostate cancer. Int J Urol. 2012 Feb;19(2):134–41.
    • Lu W, Chen H, Niu Y, Wu H, Xia D, Wu Y. Dairy products intake and cancer mortality risk: a meta-analysis of 11 population-based cohort studies. Nutr J [Internet]. 2016 Dec [cited 2017 Aug 29];15(1). Available from: http://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12937-016-0210-9
    • Ma RW-L, Chapman K. A systematic review of the effect of diet in prostate cancer prevention and treatment. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2009 Jun;22(3):187–99.
    • Mandair D, Rossi RE, Pericleous M, Whyand T, Caplin ME. Prostate cancer and the influence of dietary factors and supplements: a systematic review. Nutr Metab. 2014;11(1):30.
    • Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). Herbal medicines: Advice for consumers [Internet]. [cited 2015 Jan 7]. Available from: http://www.mhra.gov.uk/Safetyinformation/Generalsafetyinformationandadvice/Herbalmedicines/Usingherbalmedicinessafely/index.htm
    • NHS Choices. Pulses: lentils, peas and beans [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2017 Jul 7]. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/pulses.aspx
    • NHS Choices. Vitamins and minerals - Calcium [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2015 Jan 8]. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium.aspx
    • NHS Choices. Vitamins and minerals - Selenium [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2015 Jan 30]. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Other-vitamins-minerals.aspx#selenium
    • NHS Choices. Vitamins and minerals - Vitamin E [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2015 Jan 30]. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Vitamin-E.aspx
    • NHS Choices. Vitamins and minerals [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2015 May 11]. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/vitamins-minerals.aspx
    • Paller CJ, Pantuck A, Carducci MA. A review of pomegranate in prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis [Internet]. 2017 Apr 25 [cited 2017 Jul 7]; Available from: http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/pcan.2017.19
    • Paller CJ, Ye X, Wozniak PJ, Gillespie BK, Sieber PR, Greengold RH, et al. A randomized phase II study of pomegranate extract for men with rising PSA following initial therapy for localized prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2012 Jun 12;16(1):50–5.
    • Pantuck AJ, Pettaway CA, Dreicer R, Corman J, Katz A, Ho A, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of pomegranate extract on rising PSA levels in men following primary therapy for prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2015;18(3):242.
    • Pantuck AJ. Phase II Study of Pomegranate Juice for Men with Rising Prostate-Specific Antigen following Surgery or Radiation for Prostate Cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2006 Jul 1;12(13):4018–26.
    • Peisch SF, Van Blarigan EL, Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Kenfield SA. Prostate cancer progression and mortality: a review of diet and lifestyle factors. World J Urol. 2017 Jun;35(6):867–74.
    • Pelser C, Mondul AM, Hollenbeck AR, Park Y. Dietary fat, fatty acids, and risk of prostate cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2013;22(4):697–707.
    • Philippou Y, Hadjipavlou M, Khan S, Rane A. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in prostate and bladder cancer. BJU Int. 2013 Dec;112(8):1073–9.
    • Planas J, Morote J, Orsola A, Salvador C, Trilla E, Cecchini L, et al. The relationship between daily calcium intake and bone mineral density in men with prostate cancer. BJU Int. 2007 Apr;99(4):812–6.
    • Porrini M, Riso P, Testolin G. Absorption of lycopene from single or daily portions of raw and processed tomato. Br J Nutr. 1998;80:353–361.
    • Punnen S, Hardin J, Cheng I, Klein EA, Witte JS. Impact of Meat Consumption, Preparation, and Mutagens on Aggressive Prostate Cancer. Agoulnik I, editor. PLoS ONE. 2011 Nov 23;6(11):e27711.
    • Rackley JD, Clark PE, Hall MC. Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Advanced Prostate Cancer. Urol Clin North Am. 2006 May;33(2):237–46.
    • Richman EL, Carroll PR, Chan JM. Vegetable and fruit intake after diagnosis and risk of prostate cancer progression. Int J Cancer. 2012 Jul 1;131(1):201–10.
    • Richman EL, Kenfield SA, Chavarro JE, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, Willett WC, et al. Fat Intake After Diagnosis and Risk of Lethal Prostate Cancer and All-Cause Mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2013 Jul 22;173(14):1318.
    • Richman EL, Stampfer MJ, Paciorek A, Broering JM, Carroll PR, Chan JM. Intakes of meat, fish, poultry, and eggs and risk of prostate cancer progression. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Dec 30;91(3):712–21.
    • Rowles JL, Ranard KM, Smith JW, An R, Erdman JW. Increased dietary and circulating lycopene are associated with reduced prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis [Internet]. 2017 Apr 25 [cited 2017 Apr 27]; Available from: http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/pcan.2017.25
    • Stenner-Liewen F, Liewen H, Cathomas R, Renner C, Petrausch U, Sulser T, et al. Daily Pomegranate Intake Has No Impact on PSA Levels in Patients with Advanced Prostate Cancer - Results of a Phase IIb Randomized Controlled Trial. J Cancer. 2013;4(7):597–605.
    • Stratton J, Godwin M. The effect of supplemental vitamins and minerals on the development of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fam Pract. 2011 Jan 27;28(3):243–52.
    • Strom SS, Yamamura Y, Forman MR, Pettaway CA, Barrera SL, DiGiovanni J. Saturated fat intake predicts biochemical failure after prostatectomy. Int J Cancer. 2008 Jun 1;122(11):2581–5.
    • Thomas R, Williams M, Sharma H, Chaudry A, Bellamy P. A double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised trial evaluating the effect of a polyphenol-rich whole food supplement on PSA progression in men with prostate cancer—the UK NCRN Pomi-T study. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2014 Jun;17(2):180–6.
    • Trottier G, Boström PJ, Lawrentschuk N, Fleshner NE. Nutraceuticals and prostate cancer prevention: a current review. Nat Rev Urol. 2009 Dec 8;7(1):21–30.
    • Vaishampayan U, Hussain M, Banerjee M, Seren S, Sarkar FH, Fontana J, et al. Lycopene and soy isoflavones in the treatment of prostate cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2007;59(1):1–7.
    • Van Blarigan EL, Kenfield SA, Yang M, Sesso HD, Ma J, Stampfer MJ, et al. Fat intake after prostate cancer diagnosis and mortality in the Physicians’ Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 2015 Aug;26(8):1117–26.
    • van Die MD, Bone KM, Emery J, Williams SG, Pirotta MV, Paller CJ. Phytotherapeutic interventions in the management of biochemically recurrent prostate cancer: a systematic review of randomised trials. BJU Int. 2016 Apr;117:17–34.
    • van Die MD, Bone KM, Williams SG, Pirotta MV. Soy and soy isoflavones in prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BJU Int. 2014 May;113(5b):E119–30.
    • Van Patten CL, de Boer JG, Tomlinson Guns ES. Diet and Dietary Supplement Intervention Trials for the Prevention of Prostate Cancer Recurrence: A Review of the Randomized Controlled Trial Evidence. J Urol. 2008 Dec;180(6):2314–22.
    • Vance TM, Su J, Fontham ETH, Koo SI, Chun OK. Dietary Antioxidants and Prostate Cancer: A Review. Nutr Cancer. 2013;65(6):793–801.
    • von Loew EC, Perabo FG, Siener R, MÜLLER SC. Facts and fiction of phytotherapy for prostate cancer: a critical assessment of preclinical and clinical data. In Vivo. 2007;21(2):189–204.
    • Wang L, Martins-Green M. Pomegranate and Its Components as Alternative Treatment for Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 2014 Aug 25;15(9):14949–66.
    • Wang Y, Cui R, Xiao Y, Fang J, Xu Q. Effect of carotene and lycopene on the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. PloS One. 2015;10(9):e0137427.
    • Wang Y, Jacobs EJ, Newton CC, McCullough ML. Lycopene, tomato products and prostate cancer-specific mortality among men diagnosed with nonmetastatic prostate cancer in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort: Lycopene, Tomato Products and Prostate Cancer Survival. Int J Cancer. 2016 Jun 15;138(12):2846–55.
    • Wei MY, Giovannucci EL. Lycopene, Tomato Products, and Prostate Cancer Incidence: A Review and Reassessment in the PSA Screening Era. J Oncol. 2012;2012:1–7.
    • Wilson KM, Shui IM, Mucci LA, Giovannucci E. Calcium and phosphorus intake and prostate cancer risk: a 24-y follow-up study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015 Jan;101(1):173–83.
    • World Cancer Research Fund International. Continuous Update Project report: Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Prostate Cancer [Internet]. 2014. Available from: www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Prostate-Cancer-2014-Report.pdf
    • Wright ME, Weinstein SJ, Lawson KA, Albanes D, Subar AF, Dixon LB, et al. Supplemental and Dietary Vitamin E Intakes and Risk of Prostate Cancer in a Large Prospective Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007 Jun 1;16(6):1128–35.
    • Wu K, Spiegelman D, Hou T, Albanes D, Allen NE, Berndt SI, et al. Associations between unprocessed red and processed meat, poultry, seafood and egg intake and the risk of prostate cancer: A pooled analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies: Meat, seafood, eggs and prostate cancer. Int J Cancer. 2016 May 15;138(10):2368–82.
    • Yang M, Kenfield SA, Van Blarigan EL, Wilson KM, Batista JL, Sesso HD, et al. Dairy intake after prostate cancer diagnosis in relation to disease-specific and total mortality: Postdiagnostic dairy intake and prostate cancer mortality. Int J Cancer. 2015 Nov 15;137(10):2462–9.
    • Zhang M, Wang K, Chen L, Yin B, Song Y. Is phytoestrogen intake associated with decreased risk of prostate cancer? A systematic review of epidemiological studies based on 17,546 cases. Andrology. 2016 Jul 1;4(4):745–56.
    • Zheng W, Lee S-A. Well-Done Meat Intake, Heterocyclic Amine Exposure, and Cancer Risk. Nutr Cancer. 2009 Jul 17;61(4):437–46.